Although their range was once much broader, today ostrich are found naturally only in the Savannah areas of Africa. There is only one true species of ostrich (Struthio camelus) although several subspecies are recognized.
Ostrich are primarily grazing animals, existing on a variety of plant and brush material. In many instances, succulent plants and fruits also make up a large portion of their diet as do small insects and lizards. Ostrich travel vast distances to obtain sufficient food and water.
Ostrich are equipped with many advantageous features including excellent eye sight, large external ear canals, and powerful legs which allow speeds of up to 40 mph. Because of these features, mortalities in adult ostrich are not thought to be common. By comparison, mortalities in chicks, usually related to predation, are thought to be as high as 90%.
Ostrich reach an adult height of over 7 feet by 16 to 18 months of age. They continue to increase in weight after this time with adult males reaching over 300 pounds. Ostrich may become sexually mature at 2 years of age although males often mature later than females. It is not uncommon for hens to begin laying at 2 to 3 years of age while males may take as long as 4 to 5 years to be functionally mature. In captivity, females may lay as many as 100 egg in a season, although 20 to 40 are more common. Eggs are whitish in color, weigh about 3 pounds (1000 to 1500 grams) and are generally laid every other day. Eggs are typically laid in late afternoon. Although mating may occur numerous time during the day, it is believed that a single mating may be effective for up to a week.
Adult male ostrich are solid black in color with white wing tips while the smaller females are brownish gray. Male ostrich of East Africa have pink or red skin and are often referred to a "red necks", while the more southern ostrich has blue skin and is refereed to as "blue necks". The color of the neck is dependent on the presence of the male hormone testosterone. The color of the feathers is dependent on the presence or absence of the female hormone estrogen. Thus, castrated males will have normal feather color but not the skin color and immature or spayed females will have black feathers.
In North America, the breeding season is from February to October. The mating behavior of the male is quite elaborate with the male sitting on his hocks, moving his wings up and down while throwing his head from side to side. During this time the male will usually makes a thumping sound and will inflate his neck area and create a loud booming noise. The receptive female walks with her head down, popping her beak and shaking her wings ("clucking"). When approached, the female will sit, allowing the male to mount from the back.
The male digs a depression in the ground by sitting and digging with his legs, pushing dirt backwards, forming the nest . Eggs are laid in these nests and the male usually sits on the eggs at night while the female incubates during the day. Wild clutches usually range from 8 to 14 eggs. Both parents are involved with the rearing of the young.
Ostrich have been noted by mankind since the earliest recorded histories. Numerous references and notations exist throughout the bible and ostrich have played various roles in man's history. As early as medieval times, the wearing of ostrich plumes often represented the status of nobility. This trend continued with European nobility through the late 1800's. Feathers were obtained, in most instances, from birds killed in Northern Africa.
Beginning in the mid to late 1800's, ostrich farming in southern Africa emerged and developed into one of the largest businesses in South Africa by the turn of the century. Production in these areas was primarily related to feather marketing and a captive, cross-bred bird was developed that was smaller and more easily handled and produced excellent feather quality. This bird is often referred to as the South African "black" ostrich, a term coined by U.S. ostrich farmers.
The first ostrich were brought into the United States in 1882 and were taken to Southern California. Shortly afterwards, ranching became notable in Arizona, Florida, and Georgia. Production was for feathers for use in the European fashion markets and the decline in the demand for feathers that occurred at the turn of the century ended ostrich farming in North America. Ostrich farming in Southern Africa also suffered severely with the end of the feather trade. Presently, between 50,000 and 70,000 birds are slaughtered annually throughout South Africa, Israel, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Tanzania, and Kenya primarily for the meat and leather products. Exact figures for the numbers of animals in North America are not available, although ostrich farming has become one of the fastest growing alternative or supplemental agricultural ventures available.
Ostrich, like all ratites, are flightless, although they do possess wings. The ostrich has a large breast plate that covers the thoracic area and protects the heart and liver. There is no keel and thus, no location for the attachment of flight muscles. The heart, lungs and liver are in the thoracic cavity. The ostrich does not have a gall bladder or crop but instead has a glandular stomach called a proventricculus. This stomach empties into a muscular stomach called the ventriculus. The ventriculus contains grit, rocks and other material that helps break down food and allows it to pass into the small intestine. Because the intestine of the ostrich is abnormally long, the amount of time necessary for food to pass thorough it is also long (36 hours). As in most birds, ostrich posses a cloaca which is a common site for excretion by the urinary tract and the digestive tract.
The respiratory system of ostrich as with all birds, consists of lungs, and a system of air sacs that originate in the thorax and extend into the hollow bones. Not all bones are hollow and some, including the lower leg, have a thick cortex. Ostrich can use the air sac system to reduce body heat by panting. The normal respiratory rate of an ostrich is between 7 and 12 breaths/minute.
The reproductive tract of the male ostrich consists of two testicles. The male phallus or penis is located in the ventral cloaca but unlike mammals, does not contain the urethra. The female reproductive tract consists of a single ovary and reproductive tract with a small clitoris located on the ventral cloaca.
Ostrich have two toes (emu and rhea have 3). The larger clawed toe is actually the third digit while the smaller clawless toe is the fourth digit.
The nostrils of ostrich are located forward on the beak, rather than at the base of the beak as in most birds. The trachea or wind pipe is large and located in the lower part of the mouth. The esophagus is above the tracheal opening and extends down the right side of the neck. There is one large jugular vein that runs down the right side of the neck.
Chicks:
Young chicks can be maintained in a variety of suitable facilities. A small portable pen, 12 feet long, 4 feet wide and 2 foot high can be adequate for a number of chicks. The pen is placed on short cut grass and moved daily. Chicks are brought out to the pen after the temperature reaches above 60 F and the sun is shining. Birds can be maintained in this type of facility until the temperature drops or until weather is prohibitive. Include some type of shade and wind break as young birds are sensitive to extreme sun and wind.
Young birds should be brought indoors in the evening and maintained in a heated environment until at least 2 to 3 months of age. Temperature in indoor shelters should be maintained at least 65 F and enough room to allow the birds to exercise should be provided. In areas where weather is more severe, this period may need to be extended.
Do not provide feed at night but available water is acceptable. Feed the young birds as outlined in CARE OF YOUNG BIRDS section, prior to turning them out in the morning.
Juveniles:
Juvenile birds between 3 and 10 months of age can be maintained in a similar, but larger facility as young birds. For convenience, access to the indoor facility should be available directly from the outdoor pens. However, shelter is not needed except in extremely cold areas. The amount of space per bird, for both indoor and outdoor facilities should be increased for this age bird as compared to that available for younger chicks. Outdoor pens can be of any type of substrate but ground cover such as grass, clover, or alfalfa is ideal. Grass should be kept at a closely mowed level, especially when grass begins to dry out or turn to seed, as impactions are more common at this time. Daily mowing may be necessary during some periods of the year.
Adults:
Pens and facilities for adults vary considerably. Most ranchers maintain adult pairs or trios in facilities that range from five thousand square feet to an acre or more. In general, the more room that can be provided, the better the situation. Common fences and line of sight access to neighboring pairs is often desirable but may not be practicable with overly aggressive males.
Housing or shade is usually provided although not always utilized. If birds are accustomed to being fed and watered in a shed they will be more easily confined when necessary and may build the nest and lay indoors. Alley-ways for movement of birds from pen to pen, access for haling, and provisions for confinement for veterinary care should be considered at the time of construction. Although suprising, most ratites do not require indoor shelter once over 6 months of age and often refuse to use such structures, independent of weather.
Fencing is dependent on personal preference and economics. Chain link is good but may result in problems related to leg and foot injures and is not easily climbed if escape from the pen by egg gatherers is necessary. Tubular "cattle" type fence is suitable and offer some benefits and others types of woven wire fencing are routinely used.
Many ranchers are now utilizing group pens consisting of several males and numerous females in larger acreage. This appears to provide some benefits and is more nearly similar to a natural situation. Early results indicate that increased fertility, more egg numbers, and extended laying periods can be expected in this type of set up. Several acres of enclosed pasture are needed for this type of operation. Difficulties with a group breeding situation include the inability to determine exactly the resultant chicks parentage.
Ostrich generally lay eggs every other day. Studies have shown that storing eggs for a period of from 7 to 10 days generally results in better hatchability and egg storage is recommended. Eggs can be gathered daily, placed either on their side or upright, and maintained at between 65 and 70 F. Eggs should be turned several times a day.
Collection of eggs and proper handling is important to successful hatching. Many producers use disposable gloves to handle and gather eggs. Others use a similar idea employing disposable plastic bags while still others simply wash and clean their hands thoroughly before handling eggs. Which ever the case, the idea is to prevent unnecessary contamination of the egg.
Many products are available for cleaning and sanitizing eggs once collected. A variety of dips, sprays, and similar products are marketed and used widely. While the use of such agents is heavily debated, should contamination problems occur, the use of cleaners and sanitation products can be effective. If dips, sprays, or washes are used, read the directions carefully and follow the recommended procedures outlined by the manufacturer.
Eggs laid in wet weather are the most likely to become contaminated. This is usually the result of soil bacteria being taken into the egg while the egg is sitting in water or mud. Occasionally, reproductive tract infections in the hen can also result in bacterial contamination of the egg. A complete bacteriologic examination by a veterinary diagnostic laboratory can provide insight into these problems and is strongly recommended when an abnormally large number of eggs are contaminated.
Many new products which sterilize the egg shell, the air or the working area in the incubator room now available to producers. These products all have merit when attempting to correct a diagnosed contamination problem. The use of these products as a eans of preventing potential contamination can be considered in any operation's biosecurity plan.
Often, the facilities in which the incubation equipment is kept is as critical as the equipment itself. Although there are no strict requirements that will insure successful incubation, there are several factors that should be considered.
The hatching process in ostrich, as in all birds, begins when the egg cell is expelled from the ovary of the hen. When the ovum passes into the oviduct of the female, it begins to mature and if spermatozoa are present, fertilization occurs. As the egg continues down the oviduct, the viscous albumin (egg white) , papery shell membrane and hard outer shell are progressively secreted by the lining of the duct. Even before the egg is laid, the formation of a visible embryo has begun and appears as a whitish disk on the surface of the yolk. Additional development does not occur until incubation at the proper temperature. The egg is fully formed and ready to be laid about 24 hours after it is discharged from the ovary.
Eggs should be allowed to hatch on their own or help should be given only under duress and the help should be minimal. What ever the circumstances, it is important to allow the chicks to exit the shell on their own. At the time of internal pipping, the bird has not yet internalized all of the yolk material and the blood vessels that are attached to the inside membranes of the shell have not dried up sufficiently to allow the bird to hatch normally. The final process of exiting the shell may take many hours to several days, depending on the vigor of the bird. It may be necessary to remove pieces of sharp shell or to remove dried membranes to assist the chick in this process. Birds taken out of the shell prematurely (right; rhea) often have incompletely internalized yolk sacs and are often subject to umbilical and yolk sac infections.
Once the bird has completely exited the shell, treat the umbilical area with liberal amounts of 7% Iodine. This will help disinfect the area, prevent bleeding, and minimize bacterial contamination.
The newly hatched chicks can be placed into a brooder as soon as they are dry or as soon as several birds in any batch have hatched and are ready to be removed from the hatcher. The brooder may be kept in the same room as the hatcher.
Numbered leg bands are placed on the birds and they are weighed at the time they are placed into the brooder. No food or water is provided until they are 6 to 8 days of age. This allows the birds to absorb any fluid that is in the tissues and requires that the bird begin to utilize the yolk material. Birds that have excessive water in the tissues ("wet" chicks") (see above picture) are held for longer periods without food or water. Chicks have been kept up to 10 days with no notable problems. All birds are taken out and placed on grass or dirt, as soon as weather permits to further stimulate water absorption and to encourage activity.
Often wet chicks have difficulty placing their legs under them at this stage and a condition called "spraddle leg" develops. Most birds can be treated by hobbling the legs together in a normal position with tape, tubing, or Vetrap until the chick is able to stand on its own (usually one to two days). Treatment is almost always successful if the condition is detected early. Care must be taken when hobbling birds in the brooder as they may turn onto their back and will be unable to right themselves.
Our brooder box is constructed of stainless steel so that it can be sanitized easily. It is 4 feet long, 2 1/2 feet wide, with 3 foot sides. The temperature in the hatching -brooder room is 75-78 F. Additional heat is provided for the brooded chicks with a single heat lamp directed in one corner of the brooder box. A washable mat (Nomad entrance carpet, 3M Inc) is used on the floor of the brooder. This type of flooring is ideal since it is easily cleaned, can't be eaten, and provides support for the chicks during the first few days while still allowing a clean dry surface.
After the chicks are removed from the brooder, they are placed on grass in a portable pen for as long as weather permits. The grass in the pen area is cut short and the pen is moved daily. Birds are brought back indoors nightly and maintained as described for brooding during the first week. Only water is provided at night.
Before birds are placed out in the morning, feed is provided for a one hour period. Birds are then placed in the portable pen. Supplemental feeding of cut alfalfa or clover is provided several times daily. Birds are provided pelleted feed 3 times per day for 1 hour time periods. The availability of pelleted food is limited for this age bird because we feel it helps to stimulate the use of the yolk material by the birds and reduces the incidence of bacterial enteritis that often results from continuous feeding. Using this feeding schedule, birds loose about 0.25 to 0.50 pounds of their hatching weight during the first week, then they return to or slightly exceed their hatching weight by the second week, gain about 0.50 pound by the third week and double their birth weight by one month. After this, gains of nearly 0.5 pounds per day are not uncommon with a 3 month old bird weighing 30 pounds.
When chicks are 6 to 7 days of age, reexamine the umbelical area to determine if further treatment is needed. At this time, a small "knot" or bump can often be detected at the umbelicus. This is usually what remains of the umbelical vessels and can be the source of bacterial infection that may result in umbelical and yolk sac infections. To treat this condition, simply feel the umbelical area and remove the scab that has formed on the umbelicus (below left). Apply pressure with your fingers from the belly outward, and the potential infected material will be easily expressed (below, right). Retreat this area with 7% iodine and return the bird to its original facility. No further treatment is usually needed.
The area of nutrition for ostrich has been a major concern for producers since the beginning of ostrich ranching. Few detailed studies have been performed and much is still unknown about optimum diets. This may perhaps be due to the fact that ostrich prefer a varied and diverse diet, consisting primarily of plant material. This type of diet may be difficult to duplicate in a pelleted form.
Animals do not utilize feed as such but rather the nutrients contained in the feed. However, not all animals require the same nutrients. Nutrients that are required include:
The concentrations of these nutrients vary considerably in different plants and it is for this reason that commercially prepared feed mix various sources of ingredients in order to meet differing nutritional requirements.
Research findings have shown that chicks up to six month of age do well on the pelleted diet that is produce at O.S.U. The general composition and formulation of this feed is similar to that produced by several feed companies with the exception that this diet is a 18% protein and 16% fiber. The protein component is sufficient to provide good growth without producing leg or bone development problems and the high fiber content has proven to be of value in maintaining good fecal consistency and reduces bacterial enteritis while still allowing adequate consumption for good growth rates.
Growth Rates:
| Age in weeks | Average gain in pounds |
| 2-3 | 1.3 |
| 3-4 | 2.8 |
| 4-5 | 2.4 |
| 5-6 | 3.3 |
| 6-7 | 3.3 |
| 7-8 | 4.4 |
With the limited feeding program outlined in the Care Of Newly Hatched Chick section and the supplimentation of birds with available green forage such as alfalfa, grass, clover, etc., growth and development should not be a problem. Care must be taken that feed is stored properly to prevent mold or other contamination problems and that it is fresh enough that all vitamin and supplementations are still available.
Birds that are provided forage such as alfalfa or grass, should also be provided access to grit and gravel. The size of the gravel can be varied with the size of the bird but access to it is necessary for both breakdown of the feed and normal function of the proventriculus. Oyster shell should not be used as grit as it breaks down rapidly and may change the calcium/phosphorus balance that was provided by the diet being fed.
Diets for adult birds can be similar to that used for chicks with the exception that laying birds should have a calcium/phosphorus ratio sufficient to compensate for egg production. Consult your Veterinarian and/or feed company representative for specifics on available feeds.
It is beneficial to maintain production age birds on a maintenance diet during the non-laying period that differs from that used during the laying period. This maintenance diet should allow the bird to maintain but not gain weight and perhaps even loose (not more than 5-10% body weight) during the non-laying period. Beginning about 2 months before the laying period, the higher protein, more balanced laying diet can again be given to boost the birds prior to laying and breeding.
There are numerous options available to producers for identifying ostrich. The most common method of identifying young birds is by the use of plastic numbered leg bands. These bands can be placed on the birds at hatching and will be useful for several weeks. Larger bands are available for juvenile and adult birds that can be adjusted to the size of the lag as the birds grow.
Many producers use microchip identification as a method of identifying birds. Birds can be microchipped at hatching by implanting the small chip under the skin (often placed in the pipping muscle of the neck at this time). This method is useful in both identifying birds on the ranch and also for locating and identifying lost or stolen birds. Many insurance companies require microchip identification. Microchip birds at one month of age. Locations for implanting the microchip include the hip muscle, the muscle on the back just above the tail and the area between the wings. Several companies produce both microchips and readers. Unfortunately, different products are not totally compatible. Consequently, different readers are required for different chips.
There are also now companies that provide DNA fingerprint identification. This procedure involves analysis of blood from your bird that is used to identify that bird from all other birds.
Because different plumage of male and female ostrich is not apparent until the birds are nearly two years of age, sexing young birds by visual examination of the phallus (present in both sexes) is necessary. Sexing ostrich can be done at any age but we have found that examination at 1 to 2 months is best. Examination of birds younger than this is often more difficult, and examining older birds usually involves both restraint and internal examination.
The birds can be examined while standing or while held by a second person. The examiner simply pulls up on the tail of the bird and with the other hand applies pressure on the cloaca area. By gently applying pressure from the bird outward, the cloaca will be inverted and the phallus (which rests on the floor of the cloaca) will be expressed. The male phallus is larger, curved and more cartilaginous than that of the female. In order to become proficient at this type of examination, do several birds and compare the difference. After a little practice, this procedure will become easily mastered and more than 95% of the birds of this age can be accurately sexed. In some instances, the difference will not be as notable and these birds should be reexamined at a later time to confirm your earlier decision.
There are also companies that provide a recombinant DNA sex determination for ostrich.
The Following is a listing of all diseases and disease agents that have been positively identified and reported in the scientific literature. Because of the relative newness of this industry, this list will surely increase as more information is gathered. At the present time, tentative, but not confirmed, reports exist of other potential diseases that could effect ostrich. You should work closely with your Veterinarian and a state or federal diagnostic laboratory when ever you suspect disease problems or are concerned about the introduction of agents onto your ranch.
Nematode:
Cestode:
Trematode:
Protozoa:
Arthropods:
Viral diseases:
Bacterial Diseases:
Fungal infections:
Nutritional and metabolic diseases:
Antibiotics:
There are no antibiotics that are available today that have been tested sufficiently on ostrich. As a result, the use of specific antibiotics should be the decision of your Veterinarian and should be based on a complete understanding of the problem, bacterial isolation attempts and antibiotic sensitivity testing. The following are a listing of some commonly used antibiotics that have been reported to be effective in some instances:
Anthelmintics:
A complete parasite evaluation should be performed on all birds on a routine basis. Anthelminthic treatment should only be conducted when specific parasites are identified and not used on a prophylactic basis. Complete examination for ectoparasites should include visual and microscopic evaluation for lice, mites, and ticks while both simple smears and concentration procedures (flotation) should be performed on feces for intestinal helminths.
As was the case with antibiotics, there are no anthelminthics that are approved for ostrich. Several have been evaluated in trials and shown to be effective:
The use of hematology in determining the health status of birds is becoming a more routine practice as data is becoming available. Many insurance companies are requiring some type of testing prior to insuring birds and many Veterinarians are using a series of tests to identify both clinical and subclinically ill animals.
There are two groups of tests that are routinely used; 1) complete blood counts (total white blood cell, total red blood cell, hematocrit or packed cell volume, hemoglobin, and differential white blood cell counts and 2) clinical chemistries ( Glucose, blood urea nitrogen, cholesterol, triglicerides, ...). Complete blood cell counts are often useful in identifying ongoing infections, problems related to anemia and dehydration while serum chemistries are useful determining problems with specific organ functions, electrolyte imbalances, and to evaluate treatment effects.
Under most circumstances, the drawing of blood for these tests is not overly stressful for the birds and with good facilities and experience, little or no adverse effects will be noted as a result. The proper handling of the samples and the interpretation of the results are essential, however, for an accurate evaluation of the status of the bird.
Table 1 Provides normal complete blood values for adult ostrich while Table 2 lists normal serum chemistry values.
Although the interpretation of the information provided by these tests should be conducted by your veterinarian, several general rules should be noted.
Complete cell counts:
Clinical Chemistry:
Table 1. Hematologic values (Complete blood counts) for clinically normal adult ostrich:
| Parameter | Mean | Value |
| White blood cells | (103/ul) | 5.5 to |
| Total red blood cell | (106/ul) | 1.5 |
| Hematocrit | (%) | 30-40 |
| Hemoglobin | (mg/dl) | 12-15 |
| Triglicerides | (106/ul) | 1.7 |
Table 2. Mean Serum Chemistry Values For Clinically Normal Adult Ostrich:
| Parameter | Mean | Value |
| Albumin | (g/dl) | 1.3 - 2.5 |
| Billirubin | (umol/L) | 6.0 |
| BUN | (mg/dl) | 1.2-1.8 |
| Cholesterol | (mg/dl) | 82-97 |
| Glucose | (mg/dl) | 215-245 |
| Phosphorus | (mg/dl) | 4.4-5.2 |
| Calcium | (mg/dl) | 9.5-13 |
| Total Protein | (g/dl) | 3.7-4.7 |
| Triglycerides | (mg/dl) | 90-130 |
| Urea | (umol/L) | 0.4 |
| Uric acid | (umol/L) | 460-490 |
Rolled toes:
This is a condition usually seen in birds under 2 weeks of age where the toe itself is rolled to one side. In this instance, the toe nail points to one side. This condition is usually the result poor substrate during brooding, Improper incubation conditions, or occasionally, improper nutrition in the hen.
Treatment is easy and usually 100% effective is delt with early. See the section on Correcting Rolled Toes for details on treatment.
Deviated toes:
This condition is one seen in growing birds that is usually the result of some form of trauma to the toe. Generally the bird can walk on the pad of the foot but the toe projects to one side at the joint.
This condition can usually be treated with good success by surgical manipulation. If diagnosed early, and if the break can be treated and cast so that the bird can walk, correction is usually successful. Early treatment is essential for success.
Turned or crooked legs:
This problem involves the twisting of the entire bone resulting in the foot pointing outward. The appearance of this problem can often be quite rapid with notable rotation occurring within a few days. Although there are not good studies to document the actual cause of all cases, based on similar problems in other animals, it appears that the primary causes are related to nutrition, exercise, and growth rate.
There does not appear to be any good treatments available at this time. Surgical intervention has not proven useful and other efforts are equally unsuccessful. The prevention of the condition appears to be the best opportunity for the rancher. Limited feeding, feed with protein levels below 20%, a balanced feed suitable for proper bone growth, and proper activity levels for young chicks are all essential in preventing this problem.
Slipped tendons:
The two most commonly seen tendon problems are with the heel and hock tendons. The problem arises when the tendon that runs down the back the leg, the back of the heel and to the tow (heel tendon) or the tendon that runs down the groove in the rear of the hock (hock tendon) slips out of the groove that hold them in place. The most common cause of this condition is some form of trauma, poor flooring or footing, or improper exercise.
Most cases can be treated successfully with surgery. Care must be taken to minimize the damage to the tendons after they have slipped out of their normal position. Wrapping the bird, minimizing the use of the legs, and early treatment will increase the chances of success.
Bowed legs:
This condition is one in which the toes of the chick point in the correct direction but the leg bones bow either inward or outward. The condition us generally caused by improper diet especially excess vitamin supplimentation and perhaps too rapid of an early growth rate.
There is no suitable treatment other than to improve the diet and change the feeding program.
The toes of ostrich occasionally roll to one side. This is often the result of either incubation conditions or less than ideal flooring for the young birds during brooding. Although this is not a life threatening situation, it is not desirable and will often influence the price and value of the birds. The situation can be easily corrected.
We wait until he birds are at least 2 weeks old before attempting to correct these rolled toes. At this age the birds are usually active, eating, and mobile enough to attempt to correct this situation while younger birds may become more easily stressed.
Place the toe that is rolled on a flat wooden stick (tongue depressor) and position it so that is it correctly aligned. Wrap the toe in this position with non-sticky tape (VetRap) being sure that it is aligned correctly. Place a second stick at the front of the first one forming a "T" and fasten the two sticks together with tape. The bird can now be placed back with other similar aged birds and allowed to walk on this "T" for one or two days. This is usually sufficient to correct most situations. Try to keep the bandage dry and free of fecal material. If additional correction is still needed, repeat the procedure, never allowing the wrap to be on for more than a few days. Do only one toe at a time on birds with multiple problems.
Impactions:
Impactions are one of the most frequently seen problems in growing chicks up to adult hood. There are two types of impaction problems. One being acute or newly acquired impactions and the other being chronic or long standing impactions.
Acute impactions are generally those that result from a bird eating too much unusable material vary rapidly. This type of impaction can occur on sand, dirt, rocks, gravel, grass, etc. Death in these instances is often quick due to the overextended and non-functional condition of the proventriculus.
Chronic impactions usually result from the bird having a partially impacted proventriculus which allows some material to pass through normally. This can result from consumption of material like grass, rocks, sand, etc. or some larger foreign body that would partially block the proventriculus. These birds do not gain weight normally, are often eat excess non-food material such as sand, dirt, etc. and often appear malnourished.
Many birds develop this type of problem when confronted with new situations. Moving into new pens, changing diets, excess stress including movement, feed changes, or diseases may initiate the abnormal eating habits and contribute to the problem.
Early treatment with some form of oral lubricant such as mineral oil, etc. can often help to breakdown some of this material and get the bird back to a normal diet. More commonly, surgical intervention is necessary to remove the impacted material. If diagnosed early, surgical intervention can be vary successful.
Foreign body ingestion:
Much like impactions, birds of all ages will often eat almost any type of object. In many of these cases, the objects are non-digestible and can sit in the proventriculus and impair normal food movement. Objects such as nails, plastic, knives, tools, etc. are eaten by curious birds. In most cases, as long as the object does not damage the intestine wall or puncture the proventriculus, the foreign object may be eventually digested and passed through the digestive tract. If it is too large and blocks the normal activity of the proventriculus, a chronic impaction may result.
Surgical intervention is usually successful in correcting this problem. Again, early diagnosis and surgery is essential.
Surgery generally requires a pre-anesthetic followed by gas anesthetics. After surgical preparation including clipping all feathers along the midline of the xiphoid (breast bone) cartilage, an incision is made along the midline starting at the xiphlid cartilage. The proventriculus, located on the left side, is pulled through the incision. The proventriculus in opened and the contents completely cleaned out. The contents of the ventriculus can also be removed by manual manipulation and pressure at this time. Care should be taken not to contaminate the abdominal cavity during the initial incision and the air sac during cleaning of the ventriculus and proventriculus.
Surgical gut (2 layers) are recommended to close the proventriculus and the abdominal wall while non-absorbable sutures are used on the skin.
Supportive treatment including oral fluids are helpful for the first several hours after surgery along with antibiotic therapy.
Prolapses:
Young birds often develop prolapses of the rectum. This can be a serious problem and requires immediate attention. The condition often occurs in birds with diarrhea and results from straining during defecation. The prolapse can easily be replaced and sutured in place. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential but with them, good results can be anticipated.
Occasionally, older males will develop a prolapsed phallus. In this instance, the phallus will not be retracted into the cloaca and mechanical damage, exposure to cold, etc. can result.
Treatment usually consists of confinement, cleaning and lubrication of the phallus. Surgery is usually not required and may be contraindicated.
Umbilical infections are often one of the most common causes of moralities in chicks up to 2 weeks of age. Many of these infections result from over ambitious handling of hatching chicks, poor sanitation in the hatcher, or contamination of the umbilical area after hatching. Proper treatment of newly hatched chicks and proper hatching procedures can reduce losses due to these type of infections. See section on CARE OF NEWLY HATCHED CHICKS for procedures to deal with prevention of umbilical infections.
Yolk sac infections are generally due to the same problems as are umbilical infections. Many times the yolk sac becomes infected as a result of the umbilical area being infected. Proper care and handling of newly hatched chicks can minimize these infections.
Yolk sac removal:
The removal of the yolk sac in young chicks involves a surgical procedure that totally removes both the yolk sac and the umbilical stump. Although this procedure has been widely used to eliminate yolk sac infections in the past, it is not a common practice now and the overall results of this type of surgery may not be good.
The yolk sac of young chicks may not be absorbed during the proper time period and this can create a problem with the developing chick. Normally, the yolk sac is completely absorbed in ostrich by 18 to 20 days after hatching. If it is not, death may result. The condition is most notable around 10 day to 2 weeks after hatching when the chick appears distended, acts weak, and is less active than others.
The removal of the yolk sac should be a last effort since the yolk material is necessary for providing both nutrition and antibody to the young bird. The prevention of this problem by stimulating the chick to use this material is the most beneficial treatment. Consult with your veterinarian on how to manage young birds to insure better yolk absorption and to help diagnose those birds with yolk sac retention and infections.
Surgical procedure usually involves anesthetizing the bird with Isofluorane, Halothane or Metofane. The feathers on the entire abdomen are clipped and the area is surgically prepped. An incision of about 2 inches is made completely around the navel, completely removing it (Note that it is still attached to the yolk sac and care should be taken not to rupture the yolk sac). The yolk sac is then tied off next to the intestine and the yolk sac removed. The abdomen is sutured with gut and the skin with non-absorbable suture. Flushing the abdominal cavity with warm saline (PBS) is usually helpful in maintaining temperature and antibiotic therapy is recommended.
Chicks can be returned to their familiar surroundings as soon as recovered from the anesthesia.
Respiratory diseases are most common in juvenile and young adult birds. Vary often, respiratory problems are seen in birds recently moved, new introductions, or birds under other stresses.
Nasal discharge, ocular discharge, or swelling below the eye are all good indications of a developing respiratory problem. Diagnosis, testing and treatment should be considered at this point to prevent further development that might include more serious air sac infections or pneumonia. More severely infected birds will show signs of labored breathing (even at rest), increased respiratory rate, and ruffled feathers.
Both developing and severe respiratory infections are difficult to diagnose until late in the infection. Fungal infections (Aspergillus ) and bacterial (Pasteurella, E. coli) and/or Mycoplasma infections are usually what are diagnosed either by laboratory culture or at post mortum examination.
Treatment including the use of systemic antibiotics that have been shown to be sensitive to the agent involved, vitamin and nutritional supplimentation, and supportive care are often successful if a diagnosis is made early.
Aspiration pneumonia is occasionally seen as a result of forcing fluids or the regurgitation of fluids into the trachea and lungs. This may happen as a result of improper administration of oral fluids or medication. Consult your veterinarian for proper administration of any fluids to any age bird.
Inhalation anesthetics used during surgery include Isoflurane (3-4%) or Halothane. Young birds can be masked down or intubated without a preanesthetic. Larger birds usually require preanesthetics before intubation.
Injectible anesthetics include Telazol (1mg/lb IV), Rompon (Haver) (3mg/kg)/Ketamine HCl (Fort Dodge), or Rompon (0.5 mg/lb)/Telazol (1.5mg/lb).
At present, there are no recommended vaccination programs for ostrich. Vaccination for Eastern and Western Encephalomyelitis and Clostridium perfringens Types C and D may be useful but not thoroughly tested. Both require a initial inoculation, a booster in 2 weeks and annual boosters. Consult your veterinarian for specifics.
Young birds up to two months of age can generally be picked up while supporting the chest with one hand and placing the other hand on the back, leaving the feet to dangle below. This age bird can also be easily handled and transported by wrapping them in a large towel. The wrapped bird can often be handled for various treatment purposes and transportation more safely than allowing it to try to stand and walk in a moving vehicle.
Juvenile birds (4 to 8 months) are generally too large to pick up but can be walked and guided by one person by grasping the tail with one hand a wing with the other. Do not lift the birds by the wings, however. More effectively, two people can maneuver this size bird by one person getting behind the bird and lifting on the rump while holding the wing(s) while the other holds the neck and/or beak and directs the bird from the front. Adult birds can also be moved this way, once hooded, and generally require little more effort than the juvenile bird.
If attempting to save an ostrich hide from a bird that has been slaughtered or died on the ranch, the following procedures should be followed:
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This page was last updated on November 15, 2002